Course+Content

TOK plan for Fourth Course:

Intro to TOK (week one)

__Ways of Knowing (weeks two - )__ **LANGUAGE** Objectives for this Unit: -develop an initial working definition of language -analyze the role of language in the acquisition of knowledge -relate the various theories of meaning, comparing and contrasting their criticisms -construct a functioning idea of meaning in knowledge and communication -distinguish five kinds of problematic meaning and summarize their effect on communication -evaluate the problems of translation in transmitting knowledge -examine the tendency to label (generalize) -analyze the effect of labeling when applied to groups of people -reflect on how one´s native language affects one´s thoughts, views and values -characterize how language can be used to influence, persuade and mislead

-language is rule-governed -language is intended -language is creative and open-ended -theories of meaning definition theory denotation theory image theory -meaning as know-how -problematic meaning vagueness ambiguity secondary meaning metaphor irony -meaning and interpretation -why should we care about the meaning of words? -problems of translation context untranslatable words idioms -lost in translation -labels -stereotypes -the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis -testing the hypothesis -using language to influence and persuade emotionally laden language weasel words grammar revealing and concealing -language at war -language is power
 * Introduction**
 * What is language?**
 * The Problem of Meaning**
 * Language and Translation**
 * Labels and stereotypes**
 * Language and Thought**
 * Language and Values**
 * Conclusion**

--> What would you say, right from the outset, is the role of language in knowing? How does it influence what we know and how we know it?
 * __Methodological Strategies__**

Begin reading introduction p48. Discuss what our knowledge would be like if we had no language or means of communication with others. Finish intro. Does language have any key features? Read pp48-51, completing activities when appropriate. For in-depth study of language as symbolic system: Activity p.36 Dombrowski et al. Use activity p51 to start to talk about meaning. Can you understand the passage? Do words always have an obvious meaning that everyone agrees on? Read pp52-54, completing activities along the way. Given the criticisms, do these theories give a clear idea of how the meaning of words is created and used in communication? Solicit an example of a literal statement (it is 11 degrees outside) and a non-literal statement (it is freezing outside). Do we always say exactly what we mean? Start reading about vagueness p55, completing activities, finishing readings, summarizing the advantages and disadvantages of vagueness. Read about ambiguity p56 then analyze ambiguous sentences and/or jokes. What is the difference between denotation and connotation? Read and answer questions p56. What is a metaphor? Ask for examples from students. Read a passage (maybe the poem on page 40 Dombrowski et al), and try to id the metaphors contained. Read p57-58. Make a sarcastic comment to the class (you seem really excited to be here!). Explain that this is irony. It creates ambiguity. Continue reading p59. What types of problems are encountered in interpreting the sentences? Read to p60 to explore the value of meaning. We could carry out the horoscope experiment and have the students rate it. (it uses vague, general descriptions that could be applied to anybody) Write on the board: learning a foreign language. Have students brainstorm benefits to learning another language. Read beginning p60, answer question p61. What are some possible problems that could arise in translating one language to another? Read to p62, discussing questions about idioms. Read lost in translation p63-64. Translate Lewis Carroll's poem "Jabberwocky." How is this difficult? How do you decide which word(s) to use? How are words in language used? (to label things) What predictions (generalizations) can be made from the labels p64? Divide objects p65 into two groups each with four items. Read to p66. Do you think most labels are cultural or natural? What is a stereotype? Discuss how the people p67 are stereotyped. Do the other 4 activities. Read to p67. Explain Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. Ask students to debate on how true it is. Read the description, then translate something into English. How does it sound? How do you think differently when you switch between languages? Read about Newspeak. Do you understand what's going on here? (language is being used to manipulate how people think and behave) Read about the hypothesis further. Is thought possible without language? Values. What is a value? Give an example or two. (hard work, patience, punctuality, lots of sleep?). When you say something like "Matt went back on his word", instead of "Matt changed his mind", what are you saying about Matt and his values? Students brainstorm other ways to say the verbs p72 that change the values involved. Read and discuss how values are used in advertisement to persuade people to buy products. How is language used to mislead people? Look at word pairs p73, analyze how language is used. Read about weasel words. Identify and explain weasel words in cases p74, then try to give your own examples. Read about grammar and revealing/concealing. Have you ever used language to reveal or conceal certain aspects of reality? What is PC? What are arguments for and against it? Read p75. Why is warspeak used? Do you recognize any of those words? Wrap-up and read conclusion.

(instruments of evaluation) 'Twas brillig, and the slithy toves Did gyre and gimble in the wabe: All mimsy were the borogoves, And the mome raths outgrabe.
 * __Evaluation Indicators__**
 * Oral -**
 * Written**
 * Observation**
 * Research**

"Beware the Jabberwock, my son! The jaws that bite, the claws that catch! Beware the Jubjub bird, and shun The frumious Bandersnatch!"

He took his vorpal sword in hand: Long time the manxome foe he sought So rested he by the Tumtum tree, And stood a while in thought.

And, as in uffish thought he stood, The Jabberwock, with eyes of flame, Came whiffling through the tulgey wood, And burbled as it came!

One two! One two! And through and through The vorpal blade went snicker-snack! He left it dead, and with its head He went galumphing back.

"And hast thou slain the Jabberwock? Come to my arms, my beamish boy! Oh frabjous day! Callooh! Callay!" He chortled in his joy.

'Twas brillig, and the slithy toves Did gyre and gimble in the wabe: All mimsy were the borogoves, And the mome raths outgrabe.

-before discussing role of language in humans and as a Way of Knowing, play Barnga http://intensecogitation.info/2010/06/15/questions-and-answers-about-language-in-theory-of-knowledge/ possible discussion questions and activities: introduction: "language ...completely surrounds us ...and has a central function in human life" Language is Intended: is language dependent on the observer's interpretation, since they cannot always know if something was unintentionally communicated by the subject? Denotation theory (theories of meaning): a meaningful word stands for something... does that matter if the reader is not yet aware of the word's meaning? Secondary meaning (problematic meaning): ???? they don't cover up any truths, but... Metaphor (problematic meaning): ... by "reducing complex ideas to easily understood words" Why should we care about the meaning of words?: example of "individualized horoscope" - any text, in order to be meaningful, must incite a strong personal reaction? Idioms (problems of translation): indicates that "language cannot be examined part by part", one has to look at the greater picture to understand language, the phenomenon known as language, then, is greater than the sum of its parts Sapir-Whorf hypothesis: all words are language, but language is not just words - is this contradictory? Language at war: language allows us to dehumanize others, language is psychologically powerful
 * 1. To what extent is language a part of the human identity?**
 * 2. Can unintended communication be interpreted as language by an unknowing observer?**
 * 4. Is a word still meaningful if it stands for something for someone but not for another?**
 * 5. To what extent are euphemisms truly useful?**
 * 6. To what extent does a metaphor simplify language?**
 * 7. To what extent is language dependent on personal reaction?**
 * 8. To what extent is language greater than the sum of its parts?**
 * 9. To what extent is language dependent on words?**
 * 10. To what extent can language suppress our conscience?**

//- KoKo// Gorilla sign language can teach us much about our own communication. This is a student favorite. - //Doublespeak// William Lutz This program looks at how the English language has been inflated and manipulated to distort, obfuscate,or cover up meaning, or to replace meaning altogether. Illustrations are drawn from ordinary conversation, advertising, the workplace,and the Iran-contra hearings, which offer a case study of governmental doublespeak. (28 minutes, color)

**PERCEPTION** -context -figure and ground -visual grouping -expectations -role of the unconscious -eye-witness testimony -confirmation by another sense -coherence -independent testimony -psychology of perception -what is really out there? pain, taste and color the tree in the forest the tables in the classroom -theories of reality ---common-sense realism scientific realism phenomenalism -what should we believe?
 * Introduction**
 * Perceptual Illusions**
 * Selectivity of perception**
 * Seeing and believing**
 * Distinguishing appearance from reality**
 * Ultimate reality**
 * Conclusion**

Objectives for this Unit: -develop an initial working definition of perception as a way of knowing -differentiate among the various senses and examine their roles in perception -examine perceptual illusions and analyze the extent that sensation and interpretation are involved in their perception -test the role the unconscious plays in how we interpret what we perceive -prepare criteria for determining how perception can be selective -formulate scenarios in which emotions affect how we perceive reality -evaluate how beliefs can affect perception -compose methods for distinguishing appearance and reality in everyday life -examine the limitations of our senses and devise a concept of ultimate reality -compare and contrast the theories about the relationship between perception and reality and judge the empirical view of reality -appraise the role that intuition plays in conceiving of an independently existing reality

__**Methodological strategies:**__ -in small groups, students come up with working definition of perception and how it relates to knowledge, then debate the meaning as a class - Read introduction, pp. 86-87, explain concept of empiricism. Complete activity p. 87. Ask class if they think there is more to perception than meets the eye. -Read about perceptual illusions, pp. 87-90. Discuss visual illusions. Activity p. 91. Read about the unconscious p. 91. -Ask students if they think they always notice everything that they see. Read about selectivity pp. 91-92, use questions p. 92 as point of discussion. Finish reading, then discuss questions p. 93. - Discuss how beliefs affect the way we see things. Read pp. 93-94. Students analyze the question. -Ask students if they think that appearance and reality are the same thing. Then, ask how it is possible to distinguish between appearance and reality in everyday life. Read pp. 95-96. Which of the three ways of distinguishing appearance from reality is most effective? -Ask students if they think they can hear or smell everything a dog does. Can they see as well as a condor? Knowing this, how does this affect how they see reality? How do we know what is really out there? Read pp. 96-99. Do students think that colors, sounds and tastes exist independent of our experience of them? Does it matter? (no) -Explain that the students will explore three theories about the relationship between perception and reality. Read pp. 99-100. Use questions p.101 as discussion points. Then ask students which of the three theories makes the most sense to them. - Can the students see how reason and intuition can influence the extent that we believe our perceptions? Read conclusion pp. 101-102


 * __Evaluation Indicators__**

need activity -- //At First Sight// Interesting lesson in perception as it relates to the blind vs. the sighted individual. Seeing is not believing. Based on thetrue story "To See and Not See" by neurologist Oliver Sacks, first published in The New Yorker and again in An Anthropologist on Mars(1995).

**REASON** __**Contents**__ -syllogisms -truth and validity -the structure of arguments -using Venn diagrams -deductive reasoning preserves truth -deduction and induction compared -how reliable is inductive reasoning? -what distinguishes good generalizations? -ad hominem fallacy -circular reasoning -special pleading -equivocation -argument ad ignorantiam -false analogy -false dilemma -loaded questions -causes of bad reasoning -can deductive reasoning be doubted -can inductive reasoning be doubted?
 * Introduction**
 * Deductive Reasoning**
 * Inductive Reasoning**
 * Informal Reasoning**
 * -**post hoc ergo propter hoc
 * Reason and Certainty**
 * Lateral Thinking**

__**Objectives for this Unit (what the student should know and be able to do):**__ -develop an initial working definition of logic/reason -distinguish between three common types of reasoning (deductive reasoning, inductive reasoning, informal reasoning) -construct a syllogism, recognize a valid syllogism, explore the value of syllogism in the areas of knowledge -distinguish between truth and validity -analyze how deductive reasoning preserves truth -compare deduction and induction -analyze the reliability of inductive reasoning -explore fallacies and identify examples of their application -connect the laws of thought (identity, non-contradiction, excluded middle) to doubts of deductive reasoning -apply the strategy of lateral thinking in order to "question your convictions", to avoid becoming trapped in the "prison of consistency"

Read Lagemaat pp. 112-113 in class, use questions as point of discussion to compare reason and perception. Have two students read Calvin's dialogue. Is it consistent? Have students summarize what a premise (an assumption in logic) is and what rationalism means (school of philosophy that says that reason is the most important source of knowledge). Read pp. 114-115. Give some examples of syllogisms (below) and have class analyze them for validity and truth. Continue learning about Venn diagrams p116, using a diagram to analyze a couple of syllogisms. in groups do validity activity on p. 117. Review meaning and use of syllogism. Look at examples of enthymemes and supply missing premises p. 119 (are you sure you will die? what evidence do you have?) Before reading, ask class why the statement "You should never generalize" contradicts itself in a way. Read pp. 119-120, use activities p. 120 to discuss as a group. Ask students to summarizing differences between deduction and induction. Ask for definition, example and value. Read pp. 121-122, activities p. 122. Given that people tend to make hasty generalizations and are influenced by the phenomenon of confirmation bias, what are some criteria that distinguish good generalizations from bad ones? Brainstorm and read p123. Begin reading about fallacies (homework pp. 124-129). Review in class, then activities p. 130 Why do people sometimes reason poorly and commit fallacies? p131 Ask class "Why should I be logical?" Read in class p. 132. What are the laws of thought and how are they useful? (they seem self-evident and provide the basis for meaningful communication). Read pp133-134. In what way do humans behave as turkeys? What does it mean to think outside the box? Read about lateral thinking, complete activities p136. Wrap-up and conclusion.
 * __Methodological Strategies__**


 * __Evaluation Indicators__**

Exercise 1.2.: **(taken from** http://www.kahome.co.uk/logic.htm#sect1 About what kinds of 'things' can we say that they are rational or irrational, or more or less rational? Consider examples of things like: (Rational and irrational numbers in mathematics are something quite different.)
 * || actions || beliefs, views || conclusions || desires ||
 * ^  || natural events || feelings || hopes, fears || persons ||
 * ^  || places || periods in history || policies || relationships ||
 * ^  || stones, trees || subjects (academic) ||

(laws of thought) Differences between lateral and vertical thinking:
 * Vertical thinking is selective, lateral thinking is generative.
 * Vertical thinking is analytical, lateral thinking is provocative.
 * Vertical thinking is sequential, lateral thinking can make jumps.
 * With vertical thinking one has to be correct at every step, with lateral thinking one does not have to be.
 * With vertical thinking categories, classifications and labels are fixed, with lateral thinking they are not.
 * Vertical thinking follows the most likely paths, lateral thinking explores the least likely.
 * Vertical thinking is a finite process, lateral thinking is a probabilistic one.

To check the validity of syllogistic arguments, some people find it helpful to think of them in terms of the Venn-diagrams used in set theory – which the ancient Greeks were of course not yet able to do. (an argument is valid as long as the conclusions follow the premises. it must not be true to be valid -lagemaat)

Which of the following are valid arguments? If you decide about an argument that it is not valid, explain why not. (Remember that an argument may not be valid, even if the conclusion is true, and that an argument may be valid even if the conclusion is not true.)
 * Exercise 3.3.:**
 * 1) No man (i.e. human) is an island. Some animals are human. Hence some animals are not islands.
 * 2) All those in favour of the motion will vote for it. No member of the opposition is in favour of the motion. Therefore no member of the opposition will vote for the motion.
 * 3) Things that are only imagined cannot travel through space. All UFOs are only imagined. Hence UFOs cannot travel through space.
 * 4) Those that can be fooled all the time are dangerous to democracy. Some of the people can be fooled all the time. Consequently some of the people are dangerous to democracy.
 * 5) All islands are surrounded by the sea. No man is an island. So no man is surrounded by the sea.
 * 6) Nothing that is free is worth having. All the best things in life are free. None of the best things in life are worth having.

**EMOTION/INTUITION** __**Contents**__ -primary emotions -the James-Lange theory -the role of beliefs -emotional energy -emotions as a way of knowing -rationalization biased perception fallacious reasoning emotive language -irrational behavior -the relation between reason and emotion -core intuitions reason perception romanticism -subject-specific intuitions -social intuitions -natural and educated intuitions -how reliable is intuition?
 * Introduction**
 * The nature of emotions**
 * Emotions as an obstacle of knowledge**
 * Emotions as a source of knowledge**
 * Intuition**
 * Conclusion**

-develop a working definition of emotions as a way of knowing -compare and contrast emotions with reason as an obstacle of knowledge -appraise the six primary emotions and their effect on human behavior, explore the extent that they are inborn or learned -inspect the extent to which emotions are physical in nature -explore the role that empathy plays in knowing other people's feelings -summarize how emotions are affected by beliefs -distinguish human emotions from the emotions of other animals -explore how emotions motivate people to carry out the search for knowledge -evaluate the extent to which emotion is an obstacle to knowledge and a source of knowledge -rate the ways in which emotion distorts the other ways of knowing (perception, reason and language) -inventory the ways that rationalization plays in developing an illusory belief system -construct an explanation of the role that emotions play in making poor decisions -illustrate the relation between reason and emotion, devise a personal response to the roles of each in behavior -interpret the role of intuition as a source of knowledge, when it is seen as a sixth sense -appraise the extent to which our knowledge is based on intuition, and how reason and perception depend on intuition -formulate a personal description of how intuition is used to justify knowledge claims in various areas of knowledge -devise a way to develop intuition as a reliable way of knowing and developing effective ideas
 * __Objectives__**

Ask a student who enjoys acting to come to the front of class and act out various emotions. Divide class into pairs. Have them come up with a definition of emotion as a way of knowing. Debate various definitions as a class. Read introduction p146. To begin to distinguish between reason and emotion, carry out activity p147. Read to page 149. Do activities p148, 149. How are emotions physical? How is empathy important in carrying out cooperative activities? Do you have a dog? Do you think dogs have emotions? How do you think human emotions differ from the kinds of emotions a dog can feel? Look at the picture "The Scream" p149. What is your response? What would be your response if the person was a dog instead? Read pp. 149-150. Discuss two-way relationship between beliefs and emotions. Read pp. 150-151. Use discussion questions p151 to talk about the role of emotions in the search for knowledge and carrying out intellectual activity. Write on board three columns (perception, reason, language). Have students brainstorm ways that these ways of knowing can be distorted by emotion. Read pp. 151-153. Read pp152-153. Use questions to talk about rationalizing. Ask students if they have ever rationalized and how. Talk about factors that reinforce prejudices (biased perception, fallacious reasoning, emotive language - all resulting from and reinforcing powerful emotions). What is better, to be irrational or to be without emotions. Read p154 and then work on questions. Show a picture of Spock. What is he known for? Read p155, work on questions. Students should decide how important they think emotions are in making decisions. Use questions p156 to start discussion between reason and emotion. Aristotle's quote. Read until the questions p157. Watch movie "Hotel Rwanda". Answer questions p157. Are emotions ever irrational? Do you have irrational emotions, and could you change them if you tried? Finish reading p157. What is intuition? Have you heard of the sixth sense? Can you give an example of when you felt you had an intuition? Read pp158-159, up to questions. Do you know the answers to these questions? Finish reading to p160. Can intuition be trusted? Do some people have better sense of intuition than others? Is intuition used in knowledge claims (in areas of knowledge)? How? Discuss questions p160 as a class. Would education help us to better answer these questions? Read pp161-162. Activity p163. Can intuition be taught or refined or made better? Read pp163-164. Use questions for guided discussion. After reading all this, what role does intuition play in decision-making. Finish reading p164.
 * __Methodological Strategies__**


 * __Evaluation indicators__**

Students should "consider the role and nature of knowledge in their own culture, in the cultures of others and in the wider world." (from TOK website) -- a lead-in to learning about culture-specific knowledge systems

- first by exploring their own culture: Body Ritual Among the Nacirema https://www.msu.edu/~jdowell/miner.html

- exploration of relativism and its strengths and limitations

-Hotel Rwanda - to foster international understanding and involvement in the students

sample TOK essay http://intensecogitation.info/2010/08/10/the-theory-of-knowledge-essay/